US Pharm.
2008;33(1)(Oncology suppl):5-8.
ABSTRACT:
The frequency of bone cancer is very rare, with only 400 to 700 new cases
diagnosed annually. Bone cancer may take three different forms: osteosarcoma,
chondrosarcoma, and Ewing's sarcoma.1-3 Current treatment
recommendations include high-dose methotrexate, cisplatin, ifosfamide, and
doxorubicin in combination with surgery.2 Multiple regimens have
been utilized for pre- and postoperative chemotherapy, along with trials
evaluating high-dose or dose-intensive regimens. This article seeks to focus
on the diagnosis, presentation, and treatment of osteosarcoma. In particular,
this article will review recent literature evaluating the benefits of
dose-intensive regimens.
Bone cancer is extremely rare,
representing approximately 0.001% of all new cancers, with an annual diagnosis
of 400 to 700 primary bone tumors in the United States.1-3 There
are multiple forms of bone cancer, with the three most common being
osteosarcoma (35%), chondrosarcoma (30%), and Ewing's sarcoma (16%).2
Chondrosarcoma, a malignant cartilage tumor, is most often found in older
adults. It is generally considered a low-grade malignant tumor since
metastasis is less frequent. Ewing's sarcoma, a malignant small-cell tumor,
primarily affects children and adolescents. Osteosarcoma, the focus of this
article, primarily affects children and adolescents but may also develop in
elderly adults.3 Most patients with osteosarcoma are cured with the
appropriate multimodality therapy.2,3
Pathophysiology
Osteosarcoma has a bimodal
distribution. The first peak in incidence occurs in children and adolescents
coinciding with rapid bone growth (i.e., growing spurts) and is considered a
primary tumor. The second peak in incidence occurs in elderly adults and is
considered a secondary tumor, which is most commonly associated with a history
of radiation therapy. Osteosarcoma tumors consist of malignant mesenchyma, or
spindle, cells and osteoclasts that produce immature bone, or osteoid.2,3
The malignant tissue grows in a radial manner to form a ball-like mass, which
may be felt on physical examination. As the mass grows, it penetrates the bony
cortex and compresses the surrounding muscle, creating the pseudocapsular
reactive, zone-containing microscopic extensions, or satellites, of the main
tumor mass. Although osteosarcoma can occur in any bone, the metaphyseal
regions of the distal femur, proximal tibia, and proximal humerus are the most
frequent regions affected. Osteosarcomas are typically classified as
high-grade tumors due to their rapid growth and early metastasis.1,4
The tumor can metastasize regionally, to the same extremity, or systemically.
The most common site of systemic metastasis is to the lungs.3
Clinical Presentation
Pain is the most
common symptom upon presentation and may be accompanied by swelling. The pain,
which may begin several months prior to presentation, is usually dull and/or
achy.2,3 Patients may experience a sudden worsening of pain,
causing them to seek medical attention; however, it is also common for
patients to present after experiencing a trauma, but no cause and effect
relationship for this has been demonstrated.
Diagnosis
Diagnosis of
osteosarcoma requires a detailed patient history along with physical
examination. Plain radiographic films of the suspected area are helpful in
determining anatomic site, border or growth rate, visualization of bone
destruction, matrix or new bone formation, and any periosteal reactions.
1,4 If initial radiographic films indicate an aggressive or malignant
tumor, additional studies such as MRI, CT scans, bone scintigraphy,
angiography, thallium scans, and PET scans should be performed prior to a
biopsy.1 A core needle biopsy is the preferred method and should be
performed at the site where definitive treatment will take place.2,4
Laboratory data are often unremarkable; however, elevated alkaline
phosphatase and lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) have been reported to have
prognostic significance.2,3
Staging
Staging of osteosarcoma is
multifaceted and is typically performed upon diagnosis and again after
induction, or pre-operative, chemotherapy. Presurgical staging systems are
available via the Musculoskeletal Tumor Society (MSTS), American Joint
Committee on Cancer (AJCC), and the International Union Against Cancer (Union
Internationale Contre le Cancer [UICC]).1 The MSTS staging is based
on the "GTM" classification scheme of grade (G), location (T), and lymph node
involvement/metastases (M).1 By this system, grade is categorized
as low or high. High-grade tumors are those with "a poorly defined reactive
zone that may be invaded and destroyed by the tumor" and have nodules that are
not continuous with the main tumor (skip metastases). To differentiate,
low-grade tumors are not typically found to have skip metastases.1
Location of the tumor is either categorized as intra- or extracompartmental.
Intracompartmental tumors are typically easier to characterize and have a
lower likelihood of removal that does not require amputation.1 Due
to the lack of lymphatic system throughout the bone, metastasis is rare;
therefore, any metastasis is denoted as M1 and the absence of metastasis as M0.
1 Using the grade, location, and extent of metastasis, the MSTS system
then stages the sarcoma. See TABLE 1 for a description of the MSTS
staging system.
The AJCC and UICC systems are
identical and utilize the same three categories as MSTS (grade, location, and
presence of metastasis) and include a fourth category: nodal status (N), or
lymph node involvement.1 In addition to including lymph node
involvement, the AJCC system differs in that it considers lesion size,
presence of skip metastases, and type of metastasis.1,2 Considering
these four factors, the sarcoma is then staged. TABLE 2 provides a
summary of the AJCC/UICC staging system.
It is common for cancer
registries to apply the AJCC/UICC staging system; however, the MSTS system is
most utilized among the majority of orthopedic oncologists.1 After
induction chemotherapy, restaging of the sarcoma is typically performed
utilizing the same studies (MRI, CT scan, etc.).1 The surgical
procedure to remove the sarcoma is then categorized as intralesional,
marginal, wide, or radical.1 An intralesional procedure is commonly
done by curettage and may leave behind macroscopic disease.1 In a
marginal procedure, the entire lesion is removed in one piece; however, skip
metastasis may be missed.1 A wide, or intracompartmental, excision
is a partial amputation that removes the entire lesion in addition to a small
portion of normal tissue. Again, skip metastasis may be missed, particularly
if the sarcoma is of high grade.1
Treatment
While surgery is a major component
of the treatment for sarcomas, a full discussion of the advantages and
disadvantages of limb-sparing surgery versus amputation are beyond the scope
of this paper. For purposes of this paper, we will focus on recent clinical
trials that have explored the use of dose-intensive regimens to treat
nonmetastatic and metastatic disease.
Practice guidelines from the
National Comprehensive Cancer Network (NCCN) state chemotherapy should include
at least two of the following: doxorubicin, cisplatin, ifosfamide, and
high-dose methotrexate.2 There are a multitude of suggested
regimens for pre- and postoperative use. The use of adjuvant chemotherapy was
originally researched due to the extraordinary high recurrence rate of 80% to
90%.5 Evidence regarding the use of chemotherapy in addition to
surgery was conflicting until two clinical trials performed in the 1980s.5
The results of these two trials, and multiple trials afterward, have
established that the combination of chemotherapy and surgery improve
disease-free and overall survival rates of >60%.5 A multitude of
trials have studied various regimens with the four recommended therapies. A
comprehensive review of osteosarcoma treatment by Ferguson and Goorin in 2001
concluded that "the optimal schedule of therapy is still being investigated,
as is the role of dose intensification."5
As methotrexate is already
recommended to be used at a high-dose for osteosarcoma, several trials have
evaluated the effectiveness of various regimens that include high-dose
ifosfamide.6-11 TABLE 3 outlines the various regimens used
in the trials discussed below.
One of the earlier trials to
evaluate high-dose ifosfamide did so in patients that were initially diagnosed
with metastatic osteosarcoma. This trial combined high-dose ifosfamide with
etoposide and granulocyte colony-stimulating factor (G-CSF). The combination
of therapy was given twice over the course of six weeks to 41 patients. After
the six weeks of therapy, patients underwent surgery, then received 34 weeks
of continuation therapy. Sites of metastasis for these patients included
pulmonary (n=28), bone (n=6), bone and pulmonary (n=6), and liver and
pulmonary (n=1). Of the 39 patients evaluated for response, 59% had a complete
or partial response to treatment. Overall survival was found to be 55% for two
years. This regimen was associated with severe toxicities. While the majority
of adverse effects were hematologic, several patients experienced a variety of
infections (including sepsis), electrolyte imbalances, and congestive heart
failure. Two patients expired during remission.6
Two recent trials by McTiernan
et al. in 2006 and Le Deley et al. in 2007 evaluated the combination of
ifosfamide and etoposide: one in metastatic disease and one in nonmetastatic
disease.7, 8 The trial conducted by McTiernan included 13 patients
with metastatic disease. Patients received a combination of ifosfamide,
etoposide, and doxorubicin with interval doses of methotrexate. Patients were
also given G-CSF. Of the seven patients with definitive pulmonary metastasis,
three had either a complete or partial response to therapy (43%). Median
survival was found to be 13 months (5-53+). As in the previous study, the most
common adverse effects were hematologic.
The trial to evaluate the
ifosfamide/etoposide combination in nonmetastatic disease was much larger: a
total of 239 patients were enrolled. Patients were randomized to receive
either doxorubicin and high-dose methotrexate or etoposide-ifosfamide and
high-dose methotrexate. This study found that significantly more patients had
a histologic response to therapy with the etoposide-ifosfamide regimen (P
=0.009) compared to the standard treatment with doxorubicin. However, overall
three-year survival rates were similar between the doxorubicin arm and the
etoposide-ifosfamide arm (84% and 83%, respectively) and were found to be
nonsignificant (HR=0.95, 95% CI: 0.6-1.6, P=0.85). Significantly more
patients in the etoposide-ifosfamide arm experienced hematologic adverse
effects than the doxorubicin arm (80% and 65%, respectively, P=0.01).
Conversely, there were significantly more nonhematologic adverse effects, such
as hepatotoxicity, in the doxorubicin arm (P=0.005).8
Survival rates for patients
presenting with metastatic disease have been reported to be approximately 20%
to 50%.1,5 For patients with nonmetastatic disease, survival rates
are typically greater than 60%, with reports of different regimens reaching
80%.1, 5 The trials combining the use of etoposide and ifosfamide
demonstrate similar survival rates for metastatic disease and may improve
survival for those patients with nonmetastatic disease. However, further
clinical trials are needed to support routine use of this combination.
Several trials have sought to
examine the utility of high-dose ifosfamide in combination with doxorubicin,
cisplatin, and high-dose methotrexate. One study group from Italy has
evaluated this regimen multiple times in patients with and without metastasis.
9-11 One of the first trials that was conducted evaluated 68 patients
with nonmetastatic disease. Fifty-six percent of patients were found to have a
good histological response to chemotherapy.
The Italian study group
additionally explored this therapy combination in 57 patients with metastatic
disease. The authors report that they previously experienced overall survival
rates of 53% in a small study of similar design.11 Sites of
metastasis for this trial were largely only pulmonary. Few patients had bone
metastasis (n=3), lung and bone (n=9), and lymph nodes (n=2). At the end of
treatment, 63% of patients were disease free. Of note, the authors found that
the site of metastasis played a significant role in the prognosis of the
patient (P=0.003). A single site metastasis was shown to have a higher
proportion of patients that were in a disease-free state after treatment.
Overall two-year survival for all patients in the study was found to be 55%;
for patients in remission, survival increased to 79%. Twenty-one percent of
patients experienced severe hematologic adverse events, resulting in
hospitalization for 4% of patients.11
Conclusion
Osteosarcoma is a complex diagnosis.
With the combination of chemotherapy and surgery, prognosis and survival for
patients has increased dramatically.1,5 As recommended by the NCCN,
the mainstay of therapy should be a regimen that includes doxorubicin,
cisplatin, ifosfamide, and high-dose methotrexate.2
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